Bosnia
"The hush that descends after lips have finished uttering a prayer for the dead." -Unknown
Background to the Genocide:
The country of Bosnia and Herzegovina has had a long and contested history of war and conflict. It has endured the rule of two different empires and bitter ethnic conflict. It began with the rule of the Ottoman Empire until 1898 followed by the Austro-Hungarian Empire leading up to the First World War. The end of the war saw the breakup of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and a collaboration between Bosnia and other Slavic nations to create one unified country called Yugoslavia. This unified country would not find a peaceful cohabitation among its different entities. Yugoslavia had an unstable existence leading up to the Second World War. The war kicked off a bloody and violent series of events that would last for the next half century. According to Adam Jones, a leading expert on Genocide, “Yugoslavia in fact became one of the most destructive theatres of history’s most destructive war.” (Jones 317) The loyalties of Yugoslavia during the war were split into primarily three groups. The Bosnian Muslims supported the Nazi regime while the Serbian population was divided over their support of the Chetniks and a partisan movement led by Josip Broz (aka Tito). The aftermath of the war left a socialist Yugoslavia led by Tito himself. Through use of fear and oppression, Tito kept the many ethnic groups in the country together. However, following his death in 1980, many groups rekindled their own strongly held nationalist beliefs and sought independence. The years of 1990-1991 saw, the countries of Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia and Bosnia declare independence from the Yugoslavia federation. These actions would ultimately explode into all out warfare in Yugoslavia.
Children’s life in pre-war Bosnia
Life before the conflict in Bosnia was centered upon the family. The average family in Bosnia is not like those of America today. It consists of an extended family with the grandparents often living with their children and grandchildren. They often act as second parents to the children when the parents are away at work. Families in agricultural areas lived in a communal setting with other families. Children did attend school before the war started. Education was free to all children and it was also mandatory. Muslim children had schools specifically geared towards teaching of Islamic law and the Koran. (“Culture of Bosnia”)
Emerging Leadership within the Dismantling Empire
Two influential leaders emerged during this conflict that would carry out the genocide in Bosnia. In 1987, Slobodan Milosevic became the president of Serbia and as a result, the president of all Yugoslavia (Jones 318). He would soon realize that stirring up nationalist beliefs in a crumbling Yugoslavia would provide him immense power (Jones 318). The second leader that emerged was Franjo Tudjman, the leader of Croatia. He was also a nationalistic leader. Each led campaigns of ethnic cleansing and genocide against the Bosnian population
Conditions Leading to the Genocide
With war raging on throughout Yugoslavia, the country of Bosnia found itself in a difficult situation. Slovenia successfully fought a short war with Milosevic and his Yugoslav army and claimed their independence. Croatia found some success, but saw its Serbian population declare their own independence to remain part of Milosevic’s “Greater Serbia”. (Jones 320) With succession and war surrounding Bosnia, its multi-ethnic makeup was forced into a choice of seceding or staying with the federation - either choice would be disastrous for one or more of its groups.
Ethnic Makeup
Bosnia is made up of three distinct ethnic groups: Bosnian Serbs, Bosnian Muslims and Bosnian Croatians. Like most of the surrounding countries, the multiple ethnicities did not interact very well with each other and this became evident as the Bosnian war intensified.
The Decision
Bosnia witnessed the secession of the countries around it and had an impossible choice to make. If independence were declared, its majority Serbian population would seek to integrate their area of Bosnia with Milosevic’s “Greater Serbia”. A decision to stay with the Yugoslav federation meant the acceptance by the Muslims and the Croats of Serbian dominated rule. The Muslim majority federation of Bosnia chose the latter and declared Bosnia’s independence from Yugoslavia (Jones 320).
War and Genocide
After Yugoslavia’s difficult war with both Slovenia and Croatia, it turned its eye towards Bosnia. War erupted between the three groups and the country was split into three sections. The Bosnian Serb army led by its leader, Radovan Karadzic, established the Republika Srpska in the east and controlled around three-fourths of Bosnia (“Peace Pledge Union”). The Bosnian Croats were primarily forced out, but still fought for their share of the Bosnian territory. The worst off were the Bosnian Muslims who were confined to cities and controlled no territory. The ensuing conflict would see the rape and systematic murder of members of every group, especially the Bosnian Muslims.
Genocide/ Ethnic Cleansing
Bosnian Serbs took a strategic approach to genocide which sought not only military victory, but also to rid entire populations to establish the boundaries of a post-genocidal territory agreement. (Jones 322) Although every group participated in genocidal activities, the focus of this genocide was against the Bosnian Muslim (Bosniaks) population by the Serbs and Croats. The Serbs used fear, oppression and hatred during their genocidal campaign and ensured that it would never be possible that these two groups could live side by side again (Jones 322). The main target of the Serbian army and paramilitary groups were men of “battle age” meaning any male between 16 and 65. The Serbs instituted a method to their genocide according to Adam Jones. The five steps involved first the concentration of the area they were about to “cleanse”, second, the decapitation of political leaders and other important figures followed by the separation of women and children from “ battle age” men. They were then evacuated to another area and the final step was liquidation and execution of the males. (“Peace Pledge Union”) In addition to out-right killing, instances of rape, torture and civilians placed in concentration-like camps occurred. Killings occurred in towns and villages and many people were killed in surrounding fields and buried in mass graves. The most infamous case of genocide occurred in the town of Srebrenica.
Srebrenica
In July 1995 in a town called Srebrenica, the most horrific episode of genocide occurred in Bosnia. Srebrenica was designated in 1992 as a UN safe area and protected by both the French and Dutch governments (“Peace Pledge Union”). It served as a Bosnian safe zone during this conflict. A Serbian army and paramilitary force led by Ratko Mladic surrounded the city which was home to a large Muslim population. The UN peacekeeping force did little to stop the Serbs and in some instances aided in their goals. In a matter of days, the Serbs divided the population between men and women and began to deport everyone from the town. The Muslim men and boys were bused to various places including fields, school playgrounds, football fields and other areas. Here they were ruthlessly murdered. They were shot and decapitated in many surrounding fields. In one instance, 1500 were locked into a warehouse and the Serbs fired upon it with machine guns and grenades (“Peace Pledge Union”) The Serbs buried the bodies in mass graves. An estimated 7500 men and boys over the age of 13 were killed while the UN and the west stood by and watched (“Peace Pledge Union”)
Gendercide
Gendercide is a more specific instance of genocide in which a certain gender, in these case, males is targeted for destruction. Gendercide makes Bosnia unique because it is one of the greatest instances of gendercide in history. The Serb military specifically targeted men of “battle age” in each town they invaded to prevent a possible Muslim uprising either now or in the future. Destroying the male population of a group or society is crippling and the Serbs knew this. The murder of these men allowed the paramilitary groups an easier time to commit atrocities against the remaining population. The remainder of the population, primarily women and young girls were subjected to genocidal rape (Jones 324). In some instances, these girls would be raped in front of their families, fathers or husbands to show that the Serbs had all the power. It was a demonstration of domination and absolute control. Young boys and men were also sexually assaulted (Jones 324).
Children’s experiences
Any war provides negative and often terrible living conditions for children. However, in Bosnia children were targeted along with the adults for destruction. Young boys usually starting at the age of 13 were considered able to fight and were therefore seen as a threat to the Serbian population. They were killed. They also became the favorite targets of snipers during the war by Serbian soldiers (“Culture of Bosnia”). These children were also forced to deal psychologically with the loss of their fathers and their families as well as seeing their world crumble around them because of their identity.
Aftermath
In 1995, the Dayton Accords were signed which ended the war and genocide in Bosnia (Jones 331). The country was divided between a Croat and Muslim federation and the Repiblika Srpska. This agreement saw an influx of 60,000 UN personnel stationed in the country to restore peace (“Peace Pledge Union”). However, this conflict took a great toll on Bosnia. The war claimed an estimated 102,000 lives (Jones 328). Of those lives, about 50 percent of them were Muslim and 30 percent were Serbs. The Serbian casualties resulted primarily from military action while the Muslim deaths were split almost equally between civilian and military (Jones 328). In addition, there was an estimated 20,000 people listed as missing in Bosnia today (“Peace Pledge Union”). According to the Red Cross, out of the thousands still registered as missing, 92 percent are men and 8 percent are women (Jones 324). There are also a staggering number of internally displaced persons due to this conflict. It has been reported that 1,282,000 people are registered as internally displaced (Jones 331) The label of internally displaced is given to people who are refugees in their own country and have no home to call their own.
Children’s life post war
After the conclusion of the war the lives of children were altered dramatically. Families were broken up because of the fighting. Their homes were burned and thousands of families fled and were separated. Some ended up in other countries and refugee camps. The unlucky ones found themselves in concentration camps. Families of mixed ethnicities were forced apart and many had to make the difficult choice of either choosing their family or their ethnicity (“Culture of Bosnia”). Many of the still missing individuals in Bosnia are children and those that survived have been scared by the fighting and death. Schools were shut down and slowly began to reopen after the conflict but children still missed vital years of education. Children after the conflict and even today are still haunted by the events that happened and are reminded daily by horrific nightmares and flashbacks (“Culture of Bosnia”). Some children have said that they no longer want to live after witnessing the horrors they have seen (“Culture of Bosnia”).
Current Events
Today, in the country the healing process is slow. The country still has to deal with issues of racism and nationalism that tore this country apart just twenty years ago. However, there is a hope with the younger generations who are seeking to build bridges over the problems of the past. In regards to the genocide, many important people involved with the genocide are beginning to be held accountable for their crimes. Figures include the Serbian president Milosevic and his general Radislave Kristic, who have been brought to The Hague to be held accountable for their crimes. The healing process will take a very long time to be completed and there are still questions of whether any of the ethnic areas within Bosnia-Herzegovina will seek their independence as Kosovo did in 2008.
The country of Bosnia and Herzegovina has had a long and contested history of war and conflict. It has endured the rule of two different empires and bitter ethnic conflict. It began with the rule of the Ottoman Empire until 1898 followed by the Austro-Hungarian Empire leading up to the First World War. The end of the war saw the breakup of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and a collaboration between Bosnia and other Slavic nations to create one unified country called Yugoslavia. This unified country would not find a peaceful cohabitation among its different entities. Yugoslavia had an unstable existence leading up to the Second World War. The war kicked off a bloody and violent series of events that would last for the next half century. According to Adam Jones, a leading expert on Genocide, “Yugoslavia in fact became one of the most destructive theatres of history’s most destructive war.” (Jones 317) The loyalties of Yugoslavia during the war were split into primarily three groups. The Bosnian Muslims supported the Nazi regime while the Serbian population was divided over their support of the Chetniks and a partisan movement led by Josip Broz (aka Tito). The aftermath of the war left a socialist Yugoslavia led by Tito himself. Through use of fear and oppression, Tito kept the many ethnic groups in the country together. However, following his death in 1980, many groups rekindled their own strongly held nationalist beliefs and sought independence. The years of 1990-1991 saw, the countries of Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia and Bosnia declare independence from the Yugoslavia federation. These actions would ultimately explode into all out warfare in Yugoslavia.
Children’s life in pre-war Bosnia
Life before the conflict in Bosnia was centered upon the family. The average family in Bosnia is not like those of America today. It consists of an extended family with the grandparents often living with their children and grandchildren. They often act as second parents to the children when the parents are away at work. Families in agricultural areas lived in a communal setting with other families. Children did attend school before the war started. Education was free to all children and it was also mandatory. Muslim children had schools specifically geared towards teaching of Islamic law and the Koran. (“Culture of Bosnia”)
Emerging Leadership within the Dismantling Empire
Two influential leaders emerged during this conflict that would carry out the genocide in Bosnia. In 1987, Slobodan Milosevic became the president of Serbia and as a result, the president of all Yugoslavia (Jones 318). He would soon realize that stirring up nationalist beliefs in a crumbling Yugoslavia would provide him immense power (Jones 318). The second leader that emerged was Franjo Tudjman, the leader of Croatia. He was also a nationalistic leader. Each led campaigns of ethnic cleansing and genocide against the Bosnian population
Conditions Leading to the Genocide
With war raging on throughout Yugoslavia, the country of Bosnia found itself in a difficult situation. Slovenia successfully fought a short war with Milosevic and his Yugoslav army and claimed their independence. Croatia found some success, but saw its Serbian population declare their own independence to remain part of Milosevic’s “Greater Serbia”. (Jones 320) With succession and war surrounding Bosnia, its multi-ethnic makeup was forced into a choice of seceding or staying with the federation - either choice would be disastrous for one or more of its groups.
Ethnic Makeup
Bosnia is made up of three distinct ethnic groups: Bosnian Serbs, Bosnian Muslims and Bosnian Croatians. Like most of the surrounding countries, the multiple ethnicities did not interact very well with each other and this became evident as the Bosnian war intensified.
The Decision
Bosnia witnessed the secession of the countries around it and had an impossible choice to make. If independence were declared, its majority Serbian population would seek to integrate their area of Bosnia with Milosevic’s “Greater Serbia”. A decision to stay with the Yugoslav federation meant the acceptance by the Muslims and the Croats of Serbian dominated rule. The Muslim majority federation of Bosnia chose the latter and declared Bosnia’s independence from Yugoslavia (Jones 320).
War and Genocide
After Yugoslavia’s difficult war with both Slovenia and Croatia, it turned its eye towards Bosnia. War erupted between the three groups and the country was split into three sections. The Bosnian Serb army led by its leader, Radovan Karadzic, established the Republika Srpska in the east and controlled around three-fourths of Bosnia (“Peace Pledge Union”). The Bosnian Croats were primarily forced out, but still fought for their share of the Bosnian territory. The worst off were the Bosnian Muslims who were confined to cities and controlled no territory. The ensuing conflict would see the rape and systematic murder of members of every group, especially the Bosnian Muslims.
Genocide/ Ethnic Cleansing
Bosnian Serbs took a strategic approach to genocide which sought not only military victory, but also to rid entire populations to establish the boundaries of a post-genocidal territory agreement. (Jones 322) Although every group participated in genocidal activities, the focus of this genocide was against the Bosnian Muslim (Bosniaks) population by the Serbs and Croats. The Serbs used fear, oppression and hatred during their genocidal campaign and ensured that it would never be possible that these two groups could live side by side again (Jones 322). The main target of the Serbian army and paramilitary groups were men of “battle age” meaning any male between 16 and 65. The Serbs instituted a method to their genocide according to Adam Jones. The five steps involved first the concentration of the area they were about to “cleanse”, second, the decapitation of political leaders and other important figures followed by the separation of women and children from “ battle age” men. They were then evacuated to another area and the final step was liquidation and execution of the males. (“Peace Pledge Union”) In addition to out-right killing, instances of rape, torture and civilians placed in concentration-like camps occurred. Killings occurred in towns and villages and many people were killed in surrounding fields and buried in mass graves. The most infamous case of genocide occurred in the town of Srebrenica.
Srebrenica
In July 1995 in a town called Srebrenica, the most horrific episode of genocide occurred in Bosnia. Srebrenica was designated in 1992 as a UN safe area and protected by both the French and Dutch governments (“Peace Pledge Union”). It served as a Bosnian safe zone during this conflict. A Serbian army and paramilitary force led by Ratko Mladic surrounded the city which was home to a large Muslim population. The UN peacekeeping force did little to stop the Serbs and in some instances aided in their goals. In a matter of days, the Serbs divided the population between men and women and began to deport everyone from the town. The Muslim men and boys were bused to various places including fields, school playgrounds, football fields and other areas. Here they were ruthlessly murdered. They were shot and decapitated in many surrounding fields. In one instance, 1500 were locked into a warehouse and the Serbs fired upon it with machine guns and grenades (“Peace Pledge Union”) The Serbs buried the bodies in mass graves. An estimated 7500 men and boys over the age of 13 were killed while the UN and the west stood by and watched (“Peace Pledge Union”)
Gendercide
Gendercide is a more specific instance of genocide in which a certain gender, in these case, males is targeted for destruction. Gendercide makes Bosnia unique because it is one of the greatest instances of gendercide in history. The Serb military specifically targeted men of “battle age” in each town they invaded to prevent a possible Muslim uprising either now or in the future. Destroying the male population of a group or society is crippling and the Serbs knew this. The murder of these men allowed the paramilitary groups an easier time to commit atrocities against the remaining population. The remainder of the population, primarily women and young girls were subjected to genocidal rape (Jones 324). In some instances, these girls would be raped in front of their families, fathers or husbands to show that the Serbs had all the power. It was a demonstration of domination and absolute control. Young boys and men were also sexually assaulted (Jones 324).
Children’s experiences
Any war provides negative and often terrible living conditions for children. However, in Bosnia children were targeted along with the adults for destruction. Young boys usually starting at the age of 13 were considered able to fight and were therefore seen as a threat to the Serbian population. They were killed. They also became the favorite targets of snipers during the war by Serbian soldiers (“Culture of Bosnia”). These children were also forced to deal psychologically with the loss of their fathers and their families as well as seeing their world crumble around them because of their identity.
Aftermath
In 1995, the Dayton Accords were signed which ended the war and genocide in Bosnia (Jones 331). The country was divided between a Croat and Muslim federation and the Repiblika Srpska. This agreement saw an influx of 60,000 UN personnel stationed in the country to restore peace (“Peace Pledge Union”). However, this conflict took a great toll on Bosnia. The war claimed an estimated 102,000 lives (Jones 328). Of those lives, about 50 percent of them were Muslim and 30 percent were Serbs. The Serbian casualties resulted primarily from military action while the Muslim deaths were split almost equally between civilian and military (Jones 328). In addition, there was an estimated 20,000 people listed as missing in Bosnia today (“Peace Pledge Union”). According to the Red Cross, out of the thousands still registered as missing, 92 percent are men and 8 percent are women (Jones 324). There are also a staggering number of internally displaced persons due to this conflict. It has been reported that 1,282,000 people are registered as internally displaced (Jones 331) The label of internally displaced is given to people who are refugees in their own country and have no home to call their own.
Children’s life post war
After the conclusion of the war the lives of children were altered dramatically. Families were broken up because of the fighting. Their homes were burned and thousands of families fled and were separated. Some ended up in other countries and refugee camps. The unlucky ones found themselves in concentration camps. Families of mixed ethnicities were forced apart and many had to make the difficult choice of either choosing their family or their ethnicity (“Culture of Bosnia”). Many of the still missing individuals in Bosnia are children and those that survived have been scared by the fighting and death. Schools were shut down and slowly began to reopen after the conflict but children still missed vital years of education. Children after the conflict and even today are still haunted by the events that happened and are reminded daily by horrific nightmares and flashbacks (“Culture of Bosnia”). Some children have said that they no longer want to live after witnessing the horrors they have seen (“Culture of Bosnia”).
Current Events
Today, in the country the healing process is slow. The country still has to deal with issues of racism and nationalism that tore this country apart just twenty years ago. However, there is a hope with the younger generations who are seeking to build bridges over the problems of the past. In regards to the genocide, many important people involved with the genocide are beginning to be held accountable for their crimes. Figures include the Serbian president Milosevic and his general Radislave Kristic, who have been brought to The Hague to be held accountable for their crimes. The healing process will take a very long time to be completed and there are still questions of whether any of the ethnic areas within Bosnia-Herzegovina will seek their independence as Kosovo did in 2008.
A Brief Timeline of the Bosnia Genocide
1991:
After the fall of communism, a coalition government was formed even though they had different interests. The Muslim nationalists wanted a centralized independent Bosnia. The Croats wanted to join an independent Croatian state and the Serb nationalists still wanted to stay in Belgrade-dominated Yugoslavia.
1992:
Feb 29 to March 1 1992: Bosnia's Muslims and Croats vote for independence. However, the Serbs disapprove and protest against it.
April 6 1992: Bosnia's independence is recognized by the European Union. War begins. The leader of the Serbs is Radovan Karadzic who leads an attack against the capital Sarajevo. The Serbians occupy 70% of the country. They begin to kill and persecute Muslims and Croats to create a new Serb Republic.
May 1992: The United Nations imposes sanctions on Serbia because Serbia is supporting rebels in Bosnia and Croatia.
1993:
Jan 1993: Bosnia attempts to make peace, however war breaks out against between the Muslims and Croats. The Muslims and Croats had previously been allied against the Serbs.
April 1993: There are three towns in eastern Bosnia that are declared "safe areas". They are Srebrenica, Zepa and Gorazda. The United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) stations troops and the Bosnian Serb Army (VRS) attacks end. However, the town remains isolated and only some humanitarian convoys reach it in the next two years.
1994:
March: The United States led an agreement which ends the Muslim-Croat war. A Muslim-Croat federation is created.
1995:
March :Bosnian Serb President Radovan Karadzic orders that Srebrenica and Zepa be entirely cut off and aid convoys be stopped from reaching the towns.
July 9: Karadzic issues a new order to conquer and annex Srebrenica.
July 11: Bosnian Serbs troops, under the command of General Ratko Mladic, capture the eastern enclave and U.N. "safe area" of Srebrenica. During that following week, they kill about 8,000 Muslim males. The U.N. war crimes committee in The Hague charge Karadzic and Mladic for genocide for the siege of Sarajevo. This is the largest massacre in Europe since World War II. About 20,000 children, women and elderly are bussed out.
August : NATO begins air strikes against the Bosnian Serb troops.
November 21: Following NATO air strikes against Bosnian Serbs, Bosnian Muslim President Alija Izetbegovic, Croatian President Franjo Tudjman and Serbian President Slobodan Milosevic agree to a U.S. negotiated peace deal in Dayton, Ohio.
December 14: The three leaders sign the Dayton peace agreement in Paris. This in turn paves the way for the arrival of a 66,000-strong NATO peacekeeping Implementation Force (IFOR) in Bosnia. The international community authorizes a permanent presence in the country through the office of an international peace supervisor.
1996:
July :The west forces Karadzic to resign as the Bosnian Serb president.
September: Nationalist parties win the first post-war election, confirming Bosnia's division.
1997:
Karadzic loses power and flees.
2002:
February 12: The former Yugoslav President Slobodan Milosevic goes on trial charged with 66 counts of genocide and war crimes in Bosnia, Croatia and Kosovo.
2003:
December: Ex-NATO commander tells the court; Milosevic knew Bosnian Serbs planned to massacre Muslims in Bosnia in 1995.
2004:
June 11: Due to strong international pressure and after constantly denying the the Bosnian Serb government makes a landmark admission -- that Serbs had massacred thousands of Muslims in Srebrenica, on Karadzic's orders.
2006:
March 11: Milosevic is found dead in his cell in The Hague.
2007:
Feb: The International Court of Justice rules that the 1995 Srebrenica massacre constituted genocide, but clears Serbia of direct responsibility.
2008:
July 21: Bosnian Serb wartime president Radovan Karadzic, one of the world's most wanted man for planning and authorizing genocide, is arrested. He has been on the run for nearly 13 years.
2011:
May: Ratko Mladic, chief of staff of the Bosnian Serb Army, was captured and charged with 11 counts, including genocide and crimes against humanity.
December: Bosnia's Croat, Muslim and Serb political leaders finally reach an agreement on the formation of a new government. This ends 14 months of a stalemate since the 2010 election.
2012:
January: The parliament appoints Croat Vjekoslav Bevanda as the prime minster under the December agreement.
After the fall of communism, a coalition government was formed even though they had different interests. The Muslim nationalists wanted a centralized independent Bosnia. The Croats wanted to join an independent Croatian state and the Serb nationalists still wanted to stay in Belgrade-dominated Yugoslavia.
1992:
Feb 29 to March 1 1992: Bosnia's Muslims and Croats vote for independence. However, the Serbs disapprove and protest against it.
April 6 1992: Bosnia's independence is recognized by the European Union. War begins. The leader of the Serbs is Radovan Karadzic who leads an attack against the capital Sarajevo. The Serbians occupy 70% of the country. They begin to kill and persecute Muslims and Croats to create a new Serb Republic.
May 1992: The United Nations imposes sanctions on Serbia because Serbia is supporting rebels in Bosnia and Croatia.
1993:
Jan 1993: Bosnia attempts to make peace, however war breaks out against between the Muslims and Croats. The Muslims and Croats had previously been allied against the Serbs.
April 1993: There are three towns in eastern Bosnia that are declared "safe areas". They are Srebrenica, Zepa and Gorazda. The United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) stations troops and the Bosnian Serb Army (VRS) attacks end. However, the town remains isolated and only some humanitarian convoys reach it in the next two years.
1994:
March: The United States led an agreement which ends the Muslim-Croat war. A Muslim-Croat federation is created.
1995:
March :Bosnian Serb President Radovan Karadzic orders that Srebrenica and Zepa be entirely cut off and aid convoys be stopped from reaching the towns.
July 9: Karadzic issues a new order to conquer and annex Srebrenica.
July 11: Bosnian Serbs troops, under the command of General Ratko Mladic, capture the eastern enclave and U.N. "safe area" of Srebrenica. During that following week, they kill about 8,000 Muslim males. The U.N. war crimes committee in The Hague charge Karadzic and Mladic for genocide for the siege of Sarajevo. This is the largest massacre in Europe since World War II. About 20,000 children, women and elderly are bussed out.
August : NATO begins air strikes against the Bosnian Serb troops.
November 21: Following NATO air strikes against Bosnian Serbs, Bosnian Muslim President Alija Izetbegovic, Croatian President Franjo Tudjman and Serbian President Slobodan Milosevic agree to a U.S. negotiated peace deal in Dayton, Ohio.
December 14: The three leaders sign the Dayton peace agreement in Paris. This in turn paves the way for the arrival of a 66,000-strong NATO peacekeeping Implementation Force (IFOR) in Bosnia. The international community authorizes a permanent presence in the country through the office of an international peace supervisor.
1996:
July :The west forces Karadzic to resign as the Bosnian Serb president.
September: Nationalist parties win the first post-war election, confirming Bosnia's division.
1997:
Karadzic loses power and flees.
2002:
February 12: The former Yugoslav President Slobodan Milosevic goes on trial charged with 66 counts of genocide and war crimes in Bosnia, Croatia and Kosovo.
2003:
December: Ex-NATO commander tells the court; Milosevic knew Bosnian Serbs planned to massacre Muslims in Bosnia in 1995.
2004:
June 11: Due to strong international pressure and after constantly denying the the Bosnian Serb government makes a landmark admission -- that Serbs had massacred thousands of Muslims in Srebrenica, on Karadzic's orders.
2006:
March 11: Milosevic is found dead in his cell in The Hague.
2007:
Feb: The International Court of Justice rules that the 1995 Srebrenica massacre constituted genocide, but clears Serbia of direct responsibility.
2008:
July 21: Bosnian Serb wartime president Radovan Karadzic, one of the world's most wanted man for planning and authorizing genocide, is arrested. He has been on the run for nearly 13 years.
2011:
May: Ratko Mladic, chief of staff of the Bosnian Serb Army, was captured and charged with 11 counts, including genocide and crimes against humanity.
December: Bosnia's Croat, Muslim and Serb political leaders finally reach an agreement on the formation of a new government. This ends 14 months of a stalemate since the 2010 election.
2012:
January: The parliament appoints Croat Vjekoslav Bevanda as the prime minster under the December agreement.
Glossary
Alija Izetbegovic
Ruled a multi-ethnic Bosnia after the death of Josip Broz Tito. Called for independence of Bosnia during the time that other Yugoslavian territories were becoming sovereign states.
Austria Hungarian Empire
Ruled the area of Bosnia from 1898 up until the first World War. Established in 1867 as a dual monarchy, it consisted of Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina, and parts of Poland, Romania, Ukraine, and Italy. Broken up at the end of World War I.
Belgrade
Once the Serbian capital of former Yugoslavia. Now, the capital of Serbia.
Bosniaks (Sunni Muslim)
Out of the three demographics of Bosnia, the Muslim population. Was one of the two groups targeted by Serbian nationalists during genocide and ethnic cleansing.
Bosnia-Herzegovina
One of the current names of Bosnia, a country between Croatia, Serbia, and Montenegro.
Chetniks
A Serbian nationalist paramilitary group. Fought the Turks before World War I, and fought to keep Serbian influence strong in the countries of former Yugoslavia.
Croatia
Former country of Yugoslavia, until declaring independence in 1991. Its Serbian population declared their own independence to remain part of Milosevic’s “Greater Serbia
Croats (Bosnian)
Out of the three demographics of Bosnia, the Croatian population. Was one of the two groups targeted by Serbian nationalists during genocide and ethnic cleansing.
Croat-Muslim Federation
Also known as the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is one of the two governments of Bosnia (see ‘Republica Srpska’). Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats are its main demographics.
Dayton Accords
Signed on November 21, 1995 between the three leaders of Bosnia (each representing the main three demographics), creating peace between Bosnia’s three ethnicities. Named so for the setting in which it was signed, Dayton, Ohio.
Ethnic cleansing
The process of removing an unwanted demographic from society, either by genocide or forced migration (see ‘genocide’).
Franjo Tudjman
The Croat-nationalist President of Croatia after the country declared its independence in 1991. There are allegations concerning Serbian civil rights violations attributed to him.
Gendercide
The mass and systematic killing (see ‘Genocide’) of a gender.
Genocide
A word, created in 1944 from a Polish-Jewish Lawyer to describe the Nazi’s violent policies, that refers to the systematic, mass killing of a group of people.
Greater Serbia
More of an ideology than a ‘state’ proper, refers to Serbian nationals’ idealized union of all regions of vested interest into Serbia (see ‘Republica Srpska’).
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY)
Held in 1993 by the UN Security Council, it was the first international tribunal held to bring the perpetrators of the Bosnian genocide to justice. The Tribunal charged more than 160 people.
Inter-Entity Boundary Line
Divides Bosnia-Herzegovina into Republica Srpska and the Croat-Muslim Federation.
Josip Broz Tito
Communist leader of the former Yugoslavia from 1939 for 41 years. After his death in 1980, nationalism among Yugoslavia’s republics started to tear the country apart.
Nationalism
The loyalty or devotion one has for a nation. In and of itself, it is morally neutral. However, fervent nationalism can lead to extremism (as in the case of Serbian nationalism) which often compels nationalists (a person who displays nationalism) to harm people outside of their group.
Ottoman Empire
A long-lasting empire dating back to 1299, ruled Bosnia until 1898. Its rule was followed by that of Austria-Hungary.
Radovan Karadzic
A founding member of the Serbian Democratic Party and leader of the Republica Srpska. Indicted for genocide against Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats.
Radoslav Krstic
One of Ratko Mladic’s commanders for the Bosnian Serb army (see ‘Republika Srpska). Later sentenced to 46 years of imprisonment after being charged with genocide in Bosnia.
Slobodan Milosevic
Serbia’s (and Yugoslavia’s) leader after the death of Tito. Encouraged Serbian nationalism in Serbia and throughout the rest of Yugoslavia.
Ratko Mladic
Ruthless leader of the Bosnian Serb army of Republika Srpska.
Republika Srpska
First established by Radovan Karadzic in 1993 as a Serbian state separate from Bosnia, it is now one of the two governments (see ‘Croat-Muslim Federation’) comprising Bosnia-Herzegovina. Its capital is Sarejevo.
Safe havens
Refers to six towns 1995 east Bosnia (where Republika Srpska was located) that the UN declared safe during the genocide, and still part of the Bosnian government. Some of these towns were Srebrenica, Zepa, and Gorazde, and Sarajevo.
Sarajevo
Now the capital of Republika Srpska, was once the capital of Bosnia. Before a safe enclave within Republika Srpska, it was bombarded by the Bosnian Serb army and taken over.
Serbs (Bosnian)
Out of the three demographics of Bosnia, the Serbian population. They comprise the greatest population in Republika Srpska.
Serbian Democratic Party
Formed by Radovan Karadzic in 1990, it is a highly controversial political party in Bosnia-Herzegovina, and under sanctions from the United States.
Srebrenica
During the Bosnian conflict, was a Bosniak enclave protected by France and the Netherlands In 1995, it was shelled and seized by Serbs.
UNProFor
United Nations Protection Force. Sent to protect the 6 safe havens in Bosnia (see ‘Safe havens’, ‘Srebrenica).
Yugoslavia (Federal People’s Republic of)
A now-disbanded collection of Slavic states that united after the fall of Austria-Hungary, and unstable throughout its existence. After the death of its leader Josip Broz Tito, the federation began to break apart, as the countries that made up Yugoslavia began to claim independence.
Ruled a multi-ethnic Bosnia after the death of Josip Broz Tito. Called for independence of Bosnia during the time that other Yugoslavian territories were becoming sovereign states.
Austria Hungarian Empire
Ruled the area of Bosnia from 1898 up until the first World War. Established in 1867 as a dual monarchy, it consisted of Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina, and parts of Poland, Romania, Ukraine, and Italy. Broken up at the end of World War I.
Belgrade
Once the Serbian capital of former Yugoslavia. Now, the capital of Serbia.
Bosniaks (Sunni Muslim)
Out of the three demographics of Bosnia, the Muslim population. Was one of the two groups targeted by Serbian nationalists during genocide and ethnic cleansing.
Bosnia-Herzegovina
One of the current names of Bosnia, a country between Croatia, Serbia, and Montenegro.
Chetniks
A Serbian nationalist paramilitary group. Fought the Turks before World War I, and fought to keep Serbian influence strong in the countries of former Yugoslavia.
Croatia
Former country of Yugoslavia, until declaring independence in 1991. Its Serbian population declared their own independence to remain part of Milosevic’s “Greater Serbia
Croats (Bosnian)
Out of the three demographics of Bosnia, the Croatian population. Was one of the two groups targeted by Serbian nationalists during genocide and ethnic cleansing.
Croat-Muslim Federation
Also known as the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is one of the two governments of Bosnia (see ‘Republica Srpska’). Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats are its main demographics.
Dayton Accords
Signed on November 21, 1995 between the three leaders of Bosnia (each representing the main three demographics), creating peace between Bosnia’s three ethnicities. Named so for the setting in which it was signed, Dayton, Ohio.
Ethnic cleansing
The process of removing an unwanted demographic from society, either by genocide or forced migration (see ‘genocide’).
Franjo Tudjman
The Croat-nationalist President of Croatia after the country declared its independence in 1991. There are allegations concerning Serbian civil rights violations attributed to him.
Gendercide
The mass and systematic killing (see ‘Genocide’) of a gender.
Genocide
A word, created in 1944 from a Polish-Jewish Lawyer to describe the Nazi’s violent policies, that refers to the systematic, mass killing of a group of people.
Greater Serbia
More of an ideology than a ‘state’ proper, refers to Serbian nationals’ idealized union of all regions of vested interest into Serbia (see ‘Republica Srpska’).
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY)
Held in 1993 by the UN Security Council, it was the first international tribunal held to bring the perpetrators of the Bosnian genocide to justice. The Tribunal charged more than 160 people.
Inter-Entity Boundary Line
Divides Bosnia-Herzegovina into Republica Srpska and the Croat-Muslim Federation.
Josip Broz Tito
Communist leader of the former Yugoslavia from 1939 for 41 years. After his death in 1980, nationalism among Yugoslavia’s republics started to tear the country apart.
Nationalism
The loyalty or devotion one has for a nation. In and of itself, it is morally neutral. However, fervent nationalism can lead to extremism (as in the case of Serbian nationalism) which often compels nationalists (a person who displays nationalism) to harm people outside of their group.
Ottoman Empire
A long-lasting empire dating back to 1299, ruled Bosnia until 1898. Its rule was followed by that of Austria-Hungary.
Radovan Karadzic
A founding member of the Serbian Democratic Party and leader of the Republica Srpska. Indicted for genocide against Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats.
Radoslav Krstic
One of Ratko Mladic’s commanders for the Bosnian Serb army (see ‘Republika Srpska). Later sentenced to 46 years of imprisonment after being charged with genocide in Bosnia.
Slobodan Milosevic
Serbia’s (and Yugoslavia’s) leader after the death of Tito. Encouraged Serbian nationalism in Serbia and throughout the rest of Yugoslavia.
Ratko Mladic
Ruthless leader of the Bosnian Serb army of Republika Srpska.
Republika Srpska
First established by Radovan Karadzic in 1993 as a Serbian state separate from Bosnia, it is now one of the two governments (see ‘Croat-Muslim Federation’) comprising Bosnia-Herzegovina. Its capital is Sarejevo.
Safe havens
Refers to six towns 1995 east Bosnia (where Republika Srpska was located) that the UN declared safe during the genocide, and still part of the Bosnian government. Some of these towns were Srebrenica, Zepa, and Gorazde, and Sarajevo.
Sarajevo
Now the capital of Republika Srpska, was once the capital of Bosnia. Before a safe enclave within Republika Srpska, it was bombarded by the Bosnian Serb army and taken over.
Serbs (Bosnian)
Out of the three demographics of Bosnia, the Serbian population. They comprise the greatest population in Republika Srpska.
Serbian Democratic Party
Formed by Radovan Karadzic in 1990, it is a highly controversial political party in Bosnia-Herzegovina, and under sanctions from the United States.
Srebrenica
During the Bosnian conflict, was a Bosniak enclave protected by France and the Netherlands In 1995, it was shelled and seized by Serbs.
UNProFor
United Nations Protection Force. Sent to protect the 6 safe havens in Bosnia (see ‘Safe havens’, ‘Srebrenica).
Yugoslavia (Federal People’s Republic of)
A now-disbanded collection of Slavic states that united after the fall of Austria-Hungary, and unstable throughout its existence. After the death of its leader Josip Broz Tito, the federation began to break apart, as the countries that made up Yugoslavia began to claim independence.
Bibliography: Children's Books on Genocide
Fireside, Harvey, and Bryna J. Fireside. Young People from Bosnia Talk about War. Springfield, NJ: Enslow, 1996. Print.
Filipović, Zlata. Zlata's Diary: A Child's Life in Sarajevo. New York: Viking, 1994. Print.
Halilbegovićh, Nadja. My Childhood under Fire: A Sarajevo Diary. Toronto: Kids Can, 2006. Print.
Isaac, John, and Keith Elliot. Greenberg. Bosnia: Civil War in Europe. Woodbridge, CT: Blackbirch, 1997. Print.
Ricchiardi, Sherry. Bosnia: The Struggle for Peace. Brookfield, CT: Millbrook, 1996. Print.
Schraff, Anne E. Gingerbread Heart. Logan, IA: Perfection Learning, 1999. Print.
Yancey, Diane. Life in War-torn Bosnia. San Diego, CA: Lucent, 1996. Print.
Filipović, Zlata. Zlata's Diary: A Child's Life in Sarajevo. New York: Viking, 1994. Print.
Halilbegovićh, Nadja. My Childhood under Fire: A Sarajevo Diary. Toronto: Kids Can, 2006. Print.
Isaac, John, and Keith Elliot. Greenberg. Bosnia: Civil War in Europe. Woodbridge, CT: Blackbirch, 1997. Print.
Ricchiardi, Sherry. Bosnia: The Struggle for Peace. Brookfield, CT: Millbrook, 1996. Print.
Schraff, Anne E. Gingerbread Heart. Logan, IA: Perfection Learning, 1999. Print.
Yancey, Diane. Life in War-torn Bosnia. San Diego, CA: Lucent, 1996. Print.
Works Cited
Images
http://www.google.com/imgres?um=1&hl=en&client=firefox-a&sa=N&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&biw=1067&bih=513&tbm=isch&tbnid=CFR4qvMSWzfZ2M:&imgrefurl=http://worldwithoutgenocide.org/genocides-and-conflicts/bosnian-genocide&docid=Vp2rBichrXx2xM&imgurl=http://worldwithoutgenocide.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/bosnia1.gif&w=329&h=352&ei=h6xgUKWiC4Gu8AS5_oHADA&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=814&vpy=163&dur=435&hovh=232&hovw=217&tx=170&ty=102&sig=106595738044334251883&page=1&tbnh=128&tbnw=120&&ndsp=10&ved=1t:429,r:4,s:0,i:100
http://www.google.com/imgres?&um=1&hl=en&client=firefox-a&sa=N&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&biw=1067&bih=513&addh=36&tbm=isch&tbnid=kL-D2GF2RSA2MM:&imgrefurl=http://srebrenica-genocide.blogspot.com/2010/02/geography-of-genocide-in-eastern-bosnia.html&docid=Bp7sr87HG_o-DM&imgurl=http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_vADGnqDkynw/S3pDEygLKnI/AAAAAAAAA_g/8VSgfKDJD44/s400/eastern%252BBosnia%252Bvillage%252Bof%252BBudak%252BSrebrenica%252BGenocide%252BBosnian%252BMuslim%252Bvictims.jpg&w=400&h=283&ei=7KxgULelKomo8ASr-IC4DQ&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=379&vpy=195&dur=67&hovh=189&hovw=267&tx=138&ty=96&sig=106595738044334251883&page=9&tbnh=144&tbnw=194&ndsp=13&ved=1t:429,r:6,s:103,i:65
http://www.google.com/imgres?um=1&hl=en&client=firefox-a&sa=N&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&biw=1067&bih=513&tbm=isch&tbnid=atfhiVn5x5AUNM:&imgrefurl=http://ocfordarfur.wordpress.com/2011/04/05/good-books-and-films-about-the-bosnia-genocide/&docid=Bir5uuiDeTNvIM&imgurl=http://ocfordarfur.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/srebrenica_bodies1.jpg%253Fw%253D630&w=490&h=302&ei=h6xgUKWiC4Gu8AS5_oHADA&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=221&sig=106595738044334251883&page=2&tbnh=121&tbnw=196&&ndsp=12&ved=1t:429,r:4,s:10,i:139&tx=177&ty=37
http://www.google.com/imgres?&num=10&um=1&hl=en&client=firefox-a&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&biw=1067&bih=513&addh=36&tbm=isch&tbnid=YOtdiJwG5u9GiM:&imgrefurl=http://www.flagshag.com/bosnian-coatofarms.html&docid=9C_Gat_kZ1yL_M&imgurl=http://www.flagshag.com/smaller/europecoats/Bosnia_Coat_of_Arms.jpg&w=200&h=265&ei=RK1gUIalKom-9QTEvIGoCg&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=680&vpy=163&dur=44&hovh=212&hovw=160&tx=99&ty=124&sig=106595738044334251883&page=3&tbnh=149&tbnw=110&ndsp=14&ved=1t:429,r:12,s:25,i:90
Background
"Culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina." Countries and Their Cultures. Every Culture.com, 19 Sept. 2012. Web. 19 Sept. 2012. <http://www.everyculture.com/Bo-Co/Bosnia-and-Herzegovina.html>.
Jones, Adam. Genocide, A Comprehensive Introduction. 2nd ed. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2012. 1-600. Print.
Peace Pledge Union, . "Bosnia 1995." Peach Pledge Union Information Genocide. Peace Pledge
Union, 02 May 2003. Web. 19 Sept, 2012. http://www.ppu.org.uk/genocide/g_bosnia.html>.
Glossary
"GENOCIDE - BOSNIA." GENOCIDE - BOSNIA. Peace Pledge Union Information, n.d. Web. 19 Sept. 2012. <http://www.ppu.org.uk/genocide/g_bosnia.html>
"Bosnian Genocide." History.com. A&E Television Networks, n.d. Web. 19 Sept. 2012. <http://www.history.com/topics/bosnian-genocide>.
Timeline
"Timeline: What happened during the war in Bosnia." Reuters, n.d. Web 18 Sept. 2012. <http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/07/21/us-warcrimes-karadzic-bosnia-idUSL2164446420080721>.
"Bosnia-Hercegovina Timeline." BBC News, n.d. 18 Sept. 2012. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1066981.stm>.
http://www.google.com/imgres?um=1&hl=en&client=firefox-a&sa=N&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&biw=1067&bih=513&tbm=isch&tbnid=CFR4qvMSWzfZ2M:&imgrefurl=http://worldwithoutgenocide.org/genocides-and-conflicts/bosnian-genocide&docid=Vp2rBichrXx2xM&imgurl=http://worldwithoutgenocide.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/bosnia1.gif&w=329&h=352&ei=h6xgUKWiC4Gu8AS5_oHADA&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=814&vpy=163&dur=435&hovh=232&hovw=217&tx=170&ty=102&sig=106595738044334251883&page=1&tbnh=128&tbnw=120&&ndsp=10&ved=1t:429,r:4,s:0,i:100
http://www.google.com/imgres?&um=1&hl=en&client=firefox-a&sa=N&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&biw=1067&bih=513&addh=36&tbm=isch&tbnid=kL-D2GF2RSA2MM:&imgrefurl=http://srebrenica-genocide.blogspot.com/2010/02/geography-of-genocide-in-eastern-bosnia.html&docid=Bp7sr87HG_o-DM&imgurl=http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_vADGnqDkynw/S3pDEygLKnI/AAAAAAAAA_g/8VSgfKDJD44/s400/eastern%252BBosnia%252Bvillage%252Bof%252BBudak%252BSrebrenica%252BGenocide%252BBosnian%252BMuslim%252Bvictims.jpg&w=400&h=283&ei=7KxgULelKomo8ASr-IC4DQ&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=379&vpy=195&dur=67&hovh=189&hovw=267&tx=138&ty=96&sig=106595738044334251883&page=9&tbnh=144&tbnw=194&ndsp=13&ved=1t:429,r:6,s:103,i:65
http://www.google.com/imgres?um=1&hl=en&client=firefox-a&sa=N&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&biw=1067&bih=513&tbm=isch&tbnid=atfhiVn5x5AUNM:&imgrefurl=http://ocfordarfur.wordpress.com/2011/04/05/good-books-and-films-about-the-bosnia-genocide/&docid=Bir5uuiDeTNvIM&imgurl=http://ocfordarfur.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/srebrenica_bodies1.jpg%253Fw%253D630&w=490&h=302&ei=h6xgUKWiC4Gu8AS5_oHADA&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=221&sig=106595738044334251883&page=2&tbnh=121&tbnw=196&&ndsp=12&ved=1t:429,r:4,s:10,i:139&tx=177&ty=37
http://www.google.com/imgres?&num=10&um=1&hl=en&client=firefox-a&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&biw=1067&bih=513&addh=36&tbm=isch&tbnid=YOtdiJwG5u9GiM:&imgrefurl=http://www.flagshag.com/bosnian-coatofarms.html&docid=9C_Gat_kZ1yL_M&imgurl=http://www.flagshag.com/smaller/europecoats/Bosnia_Coat_of_Arms.jpg&w=200&h=265&ei=RK1gUIalKom-9QTEvIGoCg&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=680&vpy=163&dur=44&hovh=212&hovw=160&tx=99&ty=124&sig=106595738044334251883&page=3&tbnh=149&tbnw=110&ndsp=14&ved=1t:429,r:12,s:25,i:90
Background
"Culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina." Countries and Their Cultures. Every Culture.com, 19 Sept. 2012. Web. 19 Sept. 2012. <http://www.everyculture.com/Bo-Co/Bosnia-and-Herzegovina.html>.
Jones, Adam. Genocide, A Comprehensive Introduction. 2nd ed. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2012. 1-600. Print.
Peace Pledge Union, . "Bosnia 1995." Peach Pledge Union Information Genocide. Peace Pledge
Union, 02 May 2003. Web. 19 Sept, 2012. http://www.ppu.org.uk/genocide/g_bosnia.html>.
Glossary
"GENOCIDE - BOSNIA." GENOCIDE - BOSNIA. Peace Pledge Union Information, n.d. Web. 19 Sept. 2012. <http://www.ppu.org.uk/genocide/g_bosnia.html>
"Bosnian Genocide." History.com. A&E Television Networks, n.d. Web. 19 Sept. 2012. <http://www.history.com/topics/bosnian-genocide>.
Timeline
"Timeline: What happened during the war in Bosnia." Reuters, n.d. Web 18 Sept. 2012. <http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/07/21/us-warcrimes-karadzic-bosnia-idUSL2164446420080721>.
"Bosnia-Hercegovina Timeline." BBC News, n.d. 18 Sept. 2012. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1066981.stm>.
